Being told that you may need a lung transplant can immediately bring up fear and uncertainty.
“Does this mean my lungs have completely failed?”
“Am I too old for a transplant?”
“Will I be bedridden after surgery?”
“What if my body rejects the new lungs?”
“How long can someone live after a lung transplant?”
These are important questions. Unfortunately, lung transplantation is also surrounded by misconceptions that may cause patients to fear the procedure unnecessarily or delay seeking specialist advice.
A lung transplant is a major operation, but it is also an established treatment for carefully selected people with advanced lung disease when other treatments are no longer providing adequate benefit.
It may involve replacing one diseased lung, both lungs or, in selected situations, performing a combined heart-lung transplant.
This guide answers some of the most common questions patients and families have about lung transplantation.
What Exactly Is a Lung Transplant?
A lung transplant is an operation in which one or both severely diseased lungs are removed and replaced with healthy lungs from a donor.
It is generally considered when a person’s lung disease has become advanced or life-threatening despite appropriate medications, oxygen therapy, pulmonary rehabilitation or other treatments.
The goal is not simply to improve a scan or lung-function number.
The goal is to help appropriately selected patients achieve:
- Better breathing
- Improved ability to perform everyday activities
- Greater independence
- Improved quality of life
- Potential improvement in long-term survival
When Does Someone Need a Lung Transplant?
Not every person with severe lung disease requires transplantation.
A lung transplant may be considered when lung disease continues to worsen despite receiving the best available medical treatment.
Conditions that may eventually require lung transplantation include:
- Interstitial lung disease
- Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
- Severe COPD or emphysema
- Cystic fibrosis
- Severe bronchiectasis
- Pulmonary arterial hypertension
- Certain congenital lung diseases
- Selected occupational or autoimmune-related lung diseases
The timing is extremely important.
Transplant evaluation should ideally happen before a patient becomes critically ill.
Early evaluation gives the medical team time to understand the disease, improve nutrition and physical fitness, treat other health problems and determine whether transplantation may provide meaningful benefit.
MYTH 1: “A Lung Transplant Is Only Considered When Nothing Else Can Be Done.”
FACT: Transplant evaluation should often begin before the situation becomes an emergency.
Lung transplantation is not usually the first treatment for lung disease.
Doctors will first use appropriate medicines, oxygen therapy, rehabilitation and other disease-specific treatments.
However, waiting until a person becomes extremely weak, malnourished or critically ill may make transplantation more difficult.
Being referred for a transplant evaluation does not mean you will immediately undergo surgery.
It means specialists are determining whether transplantation could become appropriate and, importantly, when the right time may be.
How Do I Know When I Should Ask About a Lung Transplant?
There isn’t one symptom or test result that automatically means someone needs transplantation.
However, you may need to discuss advanced treatment options if you are experiencing:
- Increasing breathlessness despite treatment
- Increasing oxygen requirements
- Progressive decline in lung function
- Frequent hospital admissions
- Difficulty walking or performing everyday activities
- Progressive pulmonary hypertension
- Worsening pulmonary fibrosis
- Repeated respiratory infections
- Increasing dependence on family members
- Continued disease progression despite treatment
Each lung disease behaves differently.
The right time for transplantation in pulmonary fibrosis may be different from COPD, bronchiectasis or pulmonary hypertension.
That is why evaluation should be individualized.
Who Is Eligible for a Lung Transplant?
Lung transplant eligibility is much more complex than simply asking how damaged someone’s lungs are.
Doctors evaluate the whole patient.
The transplant team may assess:
- Severity of lung disease
- Rate at which the disease is progressing
- Heart health
- Kidney function
- Liver function
- Nutritional status
- Muscle strength
- Physical fitness
- Previous infections
- Cancer history
- Other medical conditions
- Psychological readiness
- Family and social support
- Ability to take medication regularly
- Ability to attend lifelong follow-up
The team is essentially trying to answer two questions:
Is the lung disease severe enough that transplantation could significantly help?
And:
Is the patient healthy enough to undergo major surgery and successfully care for the transplanted lungs afterwards?
MYTH 2: “If You’re Older, You’re Automatically Too Old for a Lung Transplant.”
FACT: Age is important, but age alone does not determine eligibility.
There is no single birthday that automatically makes every patient unsuitable for transplantation.
Doctors consider biological fitness rather than looking only at chronological age.
For example, two people who are both 65 years old may be completely different candidates.
One patient may be active, independent and have healthy kidneys, heart and liver.
Another may have severe frailty and multiple medical conditions.
The final decision depends on:
- Overall physical condition
- Other diseases
- Frailty
- Expected surgical risk
- Rehabilitation potential
- Expected benefit from transplantation
Age therefore needs to be considered as one part of the overall assessment.
Can Someone Be Too Sick for a Lung Transplant?
Yes.
A lung transplant is one of the most significant operations a patient can undergo.
Some medical problems can make surgery or recovery extremely risky.
These may include:
- Severe uncontrolled infection
- Certain active cancers
- Serious irreversible organ failure
- Severe frailty
- Inability to participate in rehabilitation
- Active smoking
- Active substance abuse
- Serious uncontrolled medical problems
- Inability to follow the required treatment plan
However, patients should not decide for themselves that they are unsuitable.
Some conditions can be treated or improved before transplantation.
The final decision should be made after assessment by an experienced transplant team.
Can Smokers Receive a Lung Transplant?
Active smoking is a major problem when considering lung transplantation.
Patients are generally expected to completely stop:
- Cigarettes
- Cigars
- Tobacco products
- Vaping
- Nicotine-containing products when restricted by their transplant programme
Previous smokers may still potentially become transplant candidates after stopping, provided they meet the programme’s requirements.
Avoiding smoking after transplantation is equally important because tobacco can damage the transplanted lungs and increase the risk of serious complications.
What Tests Are Done Before a Lung Transplant?
A transplant evaluation is usually extensive.
Doctors need to understand not only the condition of the lungs but also whether the rest of the body can tolerate surgery and lifelong medication.
Tests may include:
- Chest X-ray
- CT scan
- Pulmonary function tests
- Six-minute walk test
- Oxygen assessment
- Blood tests
- Blood-group testing
- ECG
- Echocardiogram
- Coronary artery assessment when required
- Kidney-function testing
- Liver-function testing
- Infection screening
- Dental evaluation
- Cancer screening when appropriate
- Nutritional evaluation
- Physiotherapy assessment
- Psychological evaluation
- Social-support assessment
Additional testing may be necessary depending on the patient’s age, disease and medical history.
Will I Need One Lung or Two?
It depends on the underlying lung disease and the individual patient.
There are three broad possibilities:
Single-Lung Transplant
One diseased lung is replaced with a donor lung.
Double-Lung Transplant
Both lungs are replaced.
Heart-Lung Transplant
In selected patients with severe irreversible disease affecting both the heart and lungs, a combined heart-lung transplant may be considered.
The transplant team decides which option is most appropriate after evaluating the patient’s disease, anatomy, pulmonary pressures, infection risk and overall condition.
How Are Donor Lungs Matched?
Donor lungs must be suitable for the person receiving them.
Doctors consider several factors, including:
- Blood group
- Body and chest size
- Medical compatibility
- Lung quality
- Infection risk
- Urgency
- Recipient condition
Availability of an appropriate donor is one of the reasons patients may need to wait for transplantation.
Why Can Waiting for a Donor Lung Take Time?
Receiving a transplant is not simply based on who joined the waiting list first.
The donor lungs must be medically suitable and compatible with the recipient.
During the waiting period, patients may continue receiving:
- Oxygen therapy
- Pulmonary rehabilitation
- Nutritional support
- Medication
- Regular transplant assessments
- Treatment for infections
- Management of other health conditions
Staying physically active and nutritionally strong, whenever medically possible, can be extremely important.
What Happens During Lung Transplant Surgery?
During surgery, the damaged lung is carefully removed.
The donor lung is then connected to:
- The airway
- The pulmonary artery
- The pulmonary veins
For a double-lung transplant, both lungs are replaced during the same operation.
Some patients may require advanced heart-lung support during surgery depending on their medical condition.
Lung transplantation involves a multidisciplinary team that may include:
- Transplant surgeons
- Pulmonologists
- Anaesthesiologists
- Critical-care specialists
- Cardiologists
- Infectious-disease specialists
- Physiotherapists
- Dietitians
- Nurses
- Transplant coordinators
What Happens Immediately After Surgery?
After transplantation, the patient is initially cared for in the intensive care unit.
A ventilator may temporarily support breathing.
Patients may also have:
- Chest drains
- Intravenous medication
- Monitoring lines
- Pain-control treatment
- Immunosuppressive medication
As the patient’s condition improves, ventilator support and other intensive-care treatments are gradually reduced.
The length of ICU and hospital stay differs between patients.
MYTH 3: “I’ll Be Bedridden Forever After a Lung Transplant.”
FACT: Rehabilitation and movement are major parts of recovery.
A successful transplant is designed to help patients regain independence.
Movement usually begins as early as medically possible.
Recovery may progress from:
Sitting → Standing → Short walks → Longer walks → Structured rehabilitation → Independent activity
Physiotherapy and pulmonary rehabilitation can play a major role in restoring:
- Muscle strength
- Balance
- Endurance
- Confidence
- Exercise capacity
Recovery is gradual, and every patient progresses differently.
How Long Does Recovery Take After a Lung Transplant?
There isn’t one fixed recovery period.
The first few weeks are focused on:
- Surgical healing
- Breathing independently
- Preventing infection
- Monitoring rejection
- Regaining strength
- Adjusting medications
During the next few months, patients usually require regular hospital visits and close monitoring.
Doctors may repeatedly assess:
- Lung function
- Blood tests
- Medication levels
- Infection markers
- Imaging
- Exercise tolerance
For many patients, recovery continues for several months.
Can I Exercise After a Lung Transplant?
Yes, and exercise is often an important part of recovery.
Patients usually begin with simple movements and walking.
Depending on recovery, they may gradually progress to activities such as:
- Walking
- Stationary cycling
- Strength exercises
- Swimming when medically cleared
- Supervised aerobic exercise
The intensity should always be increased under the guidance of the transplant and rehabilitation team.
MYTH 4: “If the Transplant Works, I Won’t Need Medicines Anymore.”
FACT: Anti-rejection medication is generally required lifelong.
The immune system naturally recognizes the donor lung as foreign.
Without medication, the body may attack the transplanted lung.
Therefore, transplant recipients require immunosuppressive medicines.
These medicines help reduce the risk of rejection.
The combination and dosage may change over time, but medication adherence remains extremely important.
Missing doses can increase the risk of serious complications.
What Is Lung Rejection?
Rejection occurs when the recipient’s immune system reacts against the transplanted lung.
It does not automatically mean that the transplant has failed.
There are different types of rejection, including:
Acute Rejection
Often occurs relatively early after transplantation and may respond to treatment.
Chronic Rejection
Can develop gradually and may cause progressive deterioration in transplanted lung function.
Regular monitoring helps doctors identify problems as early as possible.
What Symptoms Could Indicate Rejection?
Possible warning signs include:
- New breathlessness
- Increasing cough
- Fever
- Chest tightness
- Reduced exercise tolerance
- Unexplained tiredness
- Drop in measured lung function
- Reduced oxygen levels
However, rejection does not always produce obvious symptoms.
That is why routine follow-up and lung-function monitoring remain necessary even when a patient feels well.
MYTH 5: “Rejection Means the Transplant Has Failed.”
FACT: Some episodes of rejection can be successfully treated.
The word “rejection” understandably causes anxiety.
But transplant teams actively monitor patients so rejection can be recognized early.
Treatment may involve:
- Increasing existing immunosuppressive medication
- Additional anti-rejection medicines
- Steroid therapy
- Other specialized treatments
Early detection is important.
Why Is Infection a Concern After Lung Transplantation?
Immunosuppressive medications prevent the immune system from attacking the donor lung.
However, they also reduce the body’s ability to fight certain infections.
The lungs are particularly exposed because every breath brings air from the outside environment directly into them.
Patients may therefore receive medication to prevent certain:
- Bacterial infections
- Viral infections
- Fungal infections
Good hygiene, vaccination planning and infection precautions become important parts of long-term transplant care.
Will I Have to Live in Isolation Forever?
No.
Patients usually need to be particularly careful during the early period after transplantation when immunosuppressive treatment is strongest.
However, the purpose of transplantation is to help people return to meaningful everyday life.
Patients can often gradually resume:
- Family activities
- Walking
- Exercise
- Social activities
- Work
- Travel
- Hobbies
Precautions should be followed according to the transplant team’s advice.
Can I Return to Work After a Lung Transplant?
Many patients may eventually return to work depending on:
- Their occupation
- Recovery
- Physical demands of the job
- Exposure to infection
- Medication effects
- Overall transplant function
Someone working at a desk may potentially return sooner than a person performing physically demanding or high-risk work.
Return-to-work decisions should be individualized.
Can I Travel After a Lung Transplant?
Travel may become possible after recovery.
However, patients should first discuss travel plans with their transplant team.
Important considerations include:
- Medication supply
- Access to healthcare
- Infection exposure
- Vaccination requirements
- Travel insurance
- Food and water safety
- Long-distance flight precautions
International travel may require additional planning.
Can I Drive After a Lung Transplant?
Patients should not drive immediately after major transplant surgery.
Driving may resume after adequate recovery if:
- Surgical healing is satisfactory
- Strength and mobility have returned
- Pain is controlled
- Medications are not causing significant side effects
- The treating team considers it safe
The exact timing varies.
Can I Eat Normally After a Lung Transplant?
Nutrition becomes extremely important.
A healthy diet can help maintain:
- Body weight
- Muscle strength
- Bone health
- Blood pressure
- Blood sugar
- Cholesterol
Because immunosuppressive medication can increase infection risk, careful food hygiene is also important.
Patients may be advised to avoid certain high-risk raw or improperly cooked foods.
Will I Gain Weight After a Lung Transplant?
Some patients gain weight after transplantation.
This can happen because:
- Breathing is easier
- Appetite improves
- Physical condition changes
- Steroid medication may increase appetite
Excessive weight gain can increase the risk of:
- Diabetes
- High blood pressure
- High cholesterol
- Cardiovascular disease
Regular exercise and nutritional monitoring therefore remain important.
Can Lung Transplant Medicines Cause Side Effects?
Yes.
Immunosuppressive medications are essential but can cause side effects.
Depending on the medication, possible problems may include:
- Kidney dysfunction
- High blood pressure
- Diabetes
- Tremors
- High cholesterol
- Bone weakness
- Increased infection risk
- Increased risk of certain cancers
This is why medication levels and organ function are checked regularly.
The goal is to find the lowest effective level of immunosuppression that protects the lung while minimizing side effects.
Can a Person Live a Normal Life After a Lung Transplant?
Many recipients regain significant independence after successful transplantation.
They may be able to:
- Walk much farther
- Exercise
- Participate in family life
- Travel
- Return to employment
- Resume hobbies
- Perform activities that were impossible before surgery
However, it is better to think of life after transplantation as a new normal.
Patients will still need:
- Lifelong medication
- Regular transplant follow-up
- Lung-function monitoring
- Healthy nutrition
- Exercise
- Infection precautions
- Cancer screening
- Avoidance of smoking and vaping
How Long Can Someone Live After a Lung Transplant?
There is no single number that accurately predicts how long an individual patient will live.
Outcomes depend on many factors, including:
- Age
- Original lung disease
- Overall health
- Type of transplant
- Physical condition before surgery
- Infection
- Rejection
- Long-term function of the transplanted lungs
- Medication adherence
- Regular follow-up
Some patients live for many years after transplantation and maintain an active quality of life.
Rather than focusing only on an average survival number, patients should discuss their individual situation with their transplant team.
MYTH 6: “A New Lung Will Last Forever.”
FACT: A transplant requires lifelong care.
A lung transplant can dramatically improve a person’s life, but it is not a permanent cure that removes all future medical risks.
Long-term complications may include:
- Chronic rejection
- Infection
- Medication-related complications
- Kidney problems
- Cardiovascular disease
- Certain cancers
- Progressive dysfunction of the transplanted lung
Careful follow-up helps identify these problems early.
Can the Original Lung Disease Return?
In many patients, the original disease does not simply return in the transplanted lungs.
However, transplantation creates new medical challenges, particularly rejection and infection.
There are also certain uncommon diseases that may recur after transplantation.
Patients therefore require lifelong specialist follow-up regardless of how well they feel.
Can Someone Have a Second Lung Transplant?
Retransplantation may be possible in carefully selected patients.
However, a second transplant is generally more complex because the patient has already undergone major surgery and long-term immunosuppression.
Eligibility needs to be reassessed individually.
A second transplant should therefore never be assumed to be automatically available if the first transplanted lungs eventually deteriorate.
MYTH 7: “If I’m on Oxygen, I Definitely Need a Lung Transplant.”
FACT: Oxygen use alone does not determine whether transplantation is necessary.
Some people use supplemental oxygen for many years without requiring a transplant.
Doctors consider:
- Why oxygen is needed
- How much oxygen is required
- Whether the requirement is increasing
- Lung-function trends
- Exercise ability
- Disease progression
- Hospital admissions
- Pulmonary pressures
- Overall prognosis
The complete clinical picture matters.
Does Needing a Ventilator Mean Lung Transplant Is Impossible?
Not necessarily.
Some critically ill patients may still be considered for transplantation.
However, patients who require prolonged mechanical ventilation generally have a more complex risk profile.
Doctors need to assess:
- Other organ function
- Infection
- Muscle strength
- Neurological condition
- Rehabilitation potential
- Likelihood of meaningful recovery
In selected cases, advanced support such as ECMO may also be used as a bridge to transplantation.
These are highly specialized decisions.
What Is ECMO and Why Is It Used Before Lung Transplant?
ECMO stands for Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation.
It is an advanced form of life support that can temporarily help oxygenate the blood when the lungs are unable to perform adequately.
In carefully selected patients with severe respiratory failure, ECMO may sometimes be used while waiting for suitable donor lungs.
ECMO does not cure the underlying lung disease.
It provides temporary support while the medical team determines or proceeds with the next stage of treatment.
Can Patients With Heart Problems Receive a Lung Transplant?
It depends on the type and severity of the heart problem.
Some patients with lung disease develop strain on the right side of the heart because of severe pulmonary hypertension.
In certain situations, heart function may improve after the lung problem is corrected.
Other patients may have significant independent heart disease that requires additional treatment.
In rare selected situations where both the heart and lungs are irreversibly damaged, combined heart-lung transplantation may be considered.
What Is a Heart-Lung Transplant?
A heart-lung transplant replaces both the heart and lungs using donor organs.
It is much less commonly performed than isolated lung transplantation.
It may be considered in selected patients with severe irreversible disease affecting both organs.
Because donor availability and patient selection are extremely important, each case requires detailed multidisciplinary assessment.
Can Pulmonary Hypertension Patients Need Lung Transplantation?
Yes.
Severe pulmonary arterial hypertension can progressively increase pressure inside the lung circulation.
Over time, this places significant stress on the right side of the heart.
When advanced pulmonary hypertension continues to progress despite optimal treatment, lung or heart-lung transplantation may be considered in appropriate patients.
Early specialist referral can be particularly important in rapidly progressing disease.
Can Patients With Pulmonary Fibrosis Undergo Lung Transplantation?
Yes.
Progressive pulmonary fibrosis is one of the major conditions for which lung transplantation may be considered.
Pulmonary fibrosis can behave unpredictably.
Some patients remain relatively stable, while others experience rapid deterioration.
Because waiting until the disease becomes extremely advanced may reduce treatment options, appropriate patients should discuss transplant evaluation before reaching a crisis.
Can COPD Patients Receive a Lung Transplant?
Yes.
Patients with very advanced COPD or emphysema may be considered for lung transplantation when symptoms remain severe despite appropriate treatment.
However, not every patient with low lung-function numbers will benefit from transplantation.
Doctors consider:
- Breathlessness
- Lung function
- Oxygen requirement
- Exercise ability
- Hospital admissions
- Pulmonary hypertension
- Overall health
- Expected survival without transplant
The decision is individualized.
Can Bronchiectasis Patients Need Lung Transplantation?
Severe bronchiectasis may eventually cause:
- Repeated infections
- Progressive lung damage
- Significant breathlessness
- Respiratory failure
When the disease becomes advanced despite appropriate treatment, transplantation may be considered.
Doctors need to carefully evaluate infection and antibiotic resistance before transplantation.
Can a Person With Previous Cancer Receive a Lung Transplant?
Possibly.
The type of cancer, stage, treatment and length of time since successful treatment all matter.
Active cancer can make transplantation unsafe because immunosuppression may allow cancer to progress more rapidly.
Someone with a successfully treated previous cancer may still potentially be considered after appropriate cancer evaluation.
The decision must be individualized.
Can Someone With Diabetes Have a Lung Transplant?
Having diabetes does not automatically exclude transplantation.
However, poorly controlled diabetes can increase the risk of:
- Infection
- Poor wound healing
- Kidney problems
- Cardiovascular complications
Doctors will therefore assess how well the diabetes is controlled and whether other organs have been affected.
Can Someone With Kidney Disease Receive a Lung Transplant?
Mild or manageable kidney problems may not automatically prevent lung transplantation.
Severe irreversible kidney failure can make transplantation much more complicated because some transplant medications can also affect kidney function.
In selected circumstances, combined organ transplantation may be considered.
Every case requires specialist assessment.
Can Women Become Pregnant After a Lung Transplant?
Pregnancy after lung transplantation is possible in some recipients, but it is considered a high-risk pregnancy.
Certain transplant medications may also need modification before pregnancy.
Women considering pregnancy should discuss it with their transplant team before trying to conceive.
Care usually requires coordination between transplant specialists and high-risk obstetric teams.
Can Lung Transplant Recipients Have a Family and Social Life?
Yes.
One of the goals of transplantation is to restore meaningful participation in everyday life.
Recipients may eventually return to:
- Family activities
- Relationships
- Travel
- Employment
- Social events
- Exercise
- Hobbies
However, medication, follow-up and infection precautions remain part of daily life.
What Can Patients Do to Improve Their Chances Before Transplantation?
Patients should focus on factors they can control.
Important steps may include:
Stop Smoking Completely
Smoking and vaping can significantly affect transplant eligibility.
Maintain Physical Activity
Participate in pulmonary rehabilitation and exercise as advised.
Maintain Good Nutrition
Both severe weight loss and excessive obesity can increase transplant risk.
Take Medicines Correctly
Follow the treatment plan prescribed by your doctors.
Attend Appointments
Transplant evaluation requires multiple investigations and specialist reviews.
Prevent Infections
Follow vaccination, hygiene and infection-prevention recommendations.
Build a Support System
Patients often need considerable family or caregiver support during transplant recovery.
Questions You Should Ask Your Lung Transplant Team
Patients and their families should feel comfortable asking questions.
Useful questions include:
- How advanced is my lung disease?
- Should I be evaluated for transplantation now or later?
- What happens if I don’t undergo transplantation?
- Am I currently eligible for a lung transplant?
- What could make me ineligible?
- Would I need a single-lung or double-lung transplant?
- Could I require a heart-lung transplant?
- How can I become stronger before transplantation?
- How does the donor waiting process work?
- What are the major risks of surgery?
- How long might I remain in hospital?
- What medicines will I need afterwards?
- How is rejection monitored?
- What warning symptoms should my family watch for?
- What kind of life could I realistically expect after recovery?
The Biggest Lung Transplant Myth
Perhaps the biggest misconception is:
“A lung transplant means there is no hope left.”
For the right patient, the opposite may be true.
Transplantation is considered because doctors believe replacing severely damaged lungs may provide an opportunity for better breathing, improved function and a better quality of life.
It is certainly not an easy treatment.
It requires major surgery, rehabilitation, lifelong medication and lifelong medical follow-up.
But for carefully selected patients with advanced lung disease, transplantation may provide an opportunity to move from simply surviving day to day toward living more independently again.
When Should You Speak to a Lung Transplant Specialist?
Consider discussing transplant evaluation if you or a family member has advanced lung disease and is experiencing:
- Increasing breathlessness
- Increasing oxygen requirement
- Repeated hospital admissions
- Progressive decline despite treatment
- Severe pulmonary hypertension
- Advanced pulmonary fibrosis
- Severe COPD or bronchiectasis
- Increasing difficulty performing normal daily activities
A transplant consultation does not automatically mean surgery.
Sometimes the most valuable outcome of an early consultation is simply understanding where you are in the disease journey and what options may be available in the future.
Final Message
Lung transplantation should neither be feared because of myths nor viewed as a simple cure.
It is a sophisticated treatment that requires careful patient selection, experienced surgical care, intensive rehabilitation and lifelong follow-up.
The most important thing for patients with advanced lung disease is not to wait until an emergency to start asking questions.
Early evaluation provides patients and families with time to understand their options and make informed decisions about the future.
Dr. Asher George Joseph
Cardiothoracic & Transplant Surgeon
This article is intended for general patient education and should not be considered a substitute for individualized medical consultation, examination or treatment advice.
